Introduction 

At many levels, the veil is highly examined in postcolonial studies. It had been targeted by the colonizer in most if not all Islamic regions. Within the Algerian context, the veil has been facing a fierce debate since the French colonization. Scholarly, many researchers such as Frantz Fanon, Marnia Lazrag and Sheth Falguni took the debate into another level. They deconstructed the notion of the veil and its meaning in different contexts and attempted to explain the use of the veil in different situations. The veil can be seen as an agency to fight for liberation, oppression or as a challenge.

Furthermore, these agencies were portrayed in various cultural productions. Following by many other Algerian films_ whether consciously or unconsciously_ the veil continued to be tackled even during the 1990s. This study attempts to discuss the representation of the veil in Mounia Meddour’s Papicha (2019). Papicha (translated as an attractively young lady) was screened at the 2019 Cannes Film Festival in “Un Certain Regard” category. The film won French César awards for Best First Feature Film and Best Newcomer Actress “Lyna Khoudri”. The paper also discusses the conflicting meanings of the veil within the film. It will be demonstrated by referring to Franz Fanon, Marnia Lazrag and Sheth Falguni’s theoretical perspectives about the veil. The term “veil” in this paper refers to Hijab, Burka, and El Haik (a traditional Algerian outfit); it is meant for explaining its discourse and meaning.

The Veil as a Symbol of Resistance 

The veil had been widely used in different discourses of analysis. However, within postcolonial context, the veil can be conducted as a symbol of empowerment and resistance. Frantz Fanon was one of those scholars who studied the veil’s meaning as a symbol of resistance rather than of religion. Fanon’s (1959) controversial essay Algeria Unveiled discussed the idea of Algerian women’s usage of the veil against the French colonization and the colonizer’s reaction towards it. Wearing the veil or El Haik in Algeria during colonization meant patriotism and resistance to the struggle. It is about their agency to fight for liberation. According to Fanon (1959), it was used as a tool; women used it to carry bombs and weapons. Hence, in Fanon’s (1959) text, the veil depicted the ability to use it as a transformation tool from an Algerian woman to French woman. The veil was a strategy of camouflage and a means of struggle (Fanon, 1959). Faulkner (1996) stated that the veil was the focus of dispute in the National Liberation Revolution since 1954. The colonial society used all kinds of homogeneous strategies to destroy Algerians identity and originality under any cost (Fanon, 1959). They focused on Algerian national reality; concentrating on wearing the veil, which was seen as a symbol to Algerian women’s status (Fanon, 1959). As a result, the colonizer wanted to destroy the Algerian society’s structure, and they knew that unveiling their women would weaken their motivation to resist (Fanon, 1959). It summarizes the political doctrine towards how many unveilings was essential to the French colony during that time—controlling women’s thoughts about the veil meant controlling their bodies (Faulkner, 1996). Every rejection to wear the veil by Algerian women meant Algeria’s acceptance to colonization. Fanon (1959) asserted that this rejection meant “accepting the rape of the colonizer” (p. 42). According to Diana Fuss (1994), Fanon’s description of Algerian women represents the “inscrutable face of nation” (p. 27). Lindsey Moore (2003) saw that the veil Fanon described women’s empowerment and self-representation as cultural role models. It represents “gendered emancipation… beyond the nationalist agenda” (Moore, 2003, p. 59). It was a reaction to the offensive attitude by the colonizer (Fanon, 1959).

The Veil According to Marnia Lazreg and Sheth Falguni

Narnia Lazreg (1994) was critical to Fanon’s arguments. Although she agrees that the veil is not merely religious but has its own political, social and cultural construction, she rejected the idea of ‘abusive imagery’ in Fanon’s essay. She argued that his idea about the veil and women’s role in the Algerian Revolution was monolithic (Lazreg, 1994). As if they were compromising a homogenous group, in a cohesive and national entity (Winifred. 1950). This analysis by Fanon reduced the “multiple, heterogeneous identities of Algerian women to a single figure (Woodhull, 1993, p.3). Lazreg (2009) criticized those who “legitimize the veil as standing for religion” (p. 92). She argued that “the veil… has no depth but is woven with multiple strands of meanings. Modesty, chastity, protection from sexual harassment, and conviction combine to obscure the purpose of the veil: the empowerment of a man over a woman in the intimacy of their sexual identity as borne by their bodies” (Lazreg, 2009, p. 128). In this context, Marnia Lazreg’s (2009) arguments focused on women’s embodiment through veiling/unveiling not only by the colonizer but also by the colonized. She argued that “no warring group (including the state army or police) issued a statement condemning the practice or recommending that women be left out of the battle raging between men.” (Lazreg, 2009, p.122). According to Lazreg (2009), women’s embodiment and arguments about what she should wear and not wear is problematic. Marnia Lazrag (2009) had a secular point of view about wearing the veil’s social context. She found that depicting women who choose not to wear the veil as morally inappropriate or pleasing men as controversial (Lazreg, 2009). During the “Black Decade”, many thoughts arose about the veil as a tool of analysis to re-think East-West binary. According to Islamists, it was a proof of purity; however; Lazreg (2009) sees it as a tool for serving masculine identity. She stated that women’s refusal to wearing the veil does not mean leaving her culture. However, it means men’s adjustment to their perception, they “would have to understand that they are no fewer men for accepting women as their social equals—for accepting that a woman’s body is hers to live, not a man’s prerogative to regulate in its most minute details of grooming, dressing, and (most important) experiencing” (Lazreg, 2009, p. 120).

Sheth Falguni (2006) raised an important question about the agency of veiling. She questioned whether these women are veiling by their will or not. She believed that “the practice of veiling expresses a dynamic agency, a challenge, and even resistance within the context of any version of “Muslim” culture at any given moment” (Falguni, 2009, p.105). Falguni (2009) introduced the “unruly” concept to explain the interior oppression between Muslim women themselves. She demonstrated that “‘ unruly’ symbol is one that appears to present a threat within the specific political or cultural context in which it appears. Its presence is perceived as a challenge to certain prevailing norms. While this symbol may itself appear as mildly or hardly transgressive, its existence indicates a more considerable (perceived) danger” (Falguni, 2009, p. 88). Falguni’s arguments reassure Lazreg’s idea about diversity. This paper’s particular reference to Mounia Maddour’s Papicha includes many of Falguni, Fanon, and Lazreg’s ideas. However, to explain the veil’s framework in the film; it is essential to understand the aspects of the veil during the fundamentalist movement in Algeria.

The Veil and Islamic fundamentalism

The veil issue is always debated in the Islamic world, especially in countries such as Algeria, Egypt, and Jordan, who suffered from fundamentalist movements. Rather than wearing the veil as a personal choice of Muslim women, Abu-Odeh (1991) stated that the fundamentalists in such countries started mobilizing the veil as a sign to support their ideology. Women started wearing the veil “to signify their initiation into the movement, the question of the legal sanction of the veil has aroused intense reactions from supporters and opponents alike” (Abu-Odeh, 1991, p.1925).

Since the issue of the veil in the paper is concerned with the Algerian context, an attempt to clarify the veil’s situation back in the 1990s is going to be discussed. Louisa Ait-Hamou (2013) stated that the Islamic Salvation Front or «Front Islamique du Salut» (FIS) promised to fight corruption by providing people jobs and housing. However, they started imposing the veil on women and many other practices such as; separating men from women and stopping cultural and artistic activities (Ait-Hamou, 2013). They considered these activities against the Islamic values. The rules imposed harmed women in general, undermining their rights because of an ideology based on patriarchy. Women were victims to not only a claimed religious rule but also political violence. Thus, they started sacrificing their right for the sake of their safety (Ait-Hamou, 2013). Many women were violated and killed because they refuse to wear the veil. In 1994, Katia Bengana, 16 years old, was killed just because her hair was not covered (Amnesty). Algerian women were taking risks. Even though many of them have been threatened, they resisted the pressure and insisted on not wearing the veil forcefully (Ait-Hamou, 2003).

The Veil in Postcolonial Films 

Many contemporary films dealt with the representation of the veil within the context of the Islamic world. It was used as a tool for questioning Western perspectives (Ullrich,2014). This representation of the veil Ullrich (2014) says; “show how the use and removal of this very same piece of cloth also unsettle any identity it contains” (p. 40). Postcolonial cinema about the veil usually connects itself with Islamic fundamentalism (Khatib, 2006). It can be seen in Papicha too. However, the veil always presented different meanings about its use, especially as a symbol of resistance (El Guindi, 1999). Unexpectedly, Egyptian films were usually representing the veil as a sign of oppression (Khatib, 2006). Egyptian films represent unveiled women as a symbol of liberation, depicting veiled women as a symbol of backwardness and fundamentalists’ psyche (Khatib, 2006) which is not limited to Egyptian films. A study conducted by Mustapha Hamil (2009) analyzed the Moroccan Farida Benlyazid’s Door films to the Sky and the Algerian Nadir Mokneche’s Viva L’aldgérie. Each of the films has its own playful meaning to the veil. However, both introduced a complicated representation of women’s postcolonial identity during the Fundamentalist movement (Hamil, 2009). In Doors to the Sky, the veil was portrayed as a symbol of oppression, agreeing to the Western representation (Hamil, 2009). According to Hamil (2009), wearing the veil in Door to the Sky is “a marker of a versatile identity represents a dismissal of the Western interpretation of the veil as an oppressive legacy of patriarchal tradition and mentality” (p.76-77).

On the other hand, Nadir Mokneche’s Viva L’aldgérie represented the veil as a symbol of cultural confusion (Hamil, 2009). It has different representations. In one of the scenes of Viva L’aldgérie, the veil was used as a mean to disguise certain meanings (Hamil, 2009). It aligns with Fanon’s arguments in the Algeria Unveiled essay. Furthermore, the film meant for mocking those who understand the veil as a symbol of oppression; it was portrayed as “a comforting object, becomes even more symbolic as an empowering tool in the hands of women who can manipulate its multifaceted social and cultural significance to their advantage” (Hamil, 2009, p. 83).

Gillo Pontecorvo’s The Battle of Algiers (1966) focused on the importance of veiled women during the Algerian revolution. Fanon’s ideas influenced the film. The veil or El-Haik in the film allowed women to be part of the revolution through carrying bombs and weapons. According to Ullrich (2014), there was the remediation of Fanon’s understanding of the veil as a symbol of struggle. Lindsey Moore (2003) stated that both the veiling and unveiling process were decisive in the film.

The veiled women’s protest on the street conceptualizes it as a symbol of resistance (Moore, 2003). On the other hand, the FLN’s use of unveiled women to carry bombs into bars presents an anti-colonial reaction towards the French colony (Shohat and Siam, 1994). Ullrich (2014) examined the portrayal of the veil in the documentary of Harun Farocki’s Images of the World and the Inscription of War (1989). This documentary used historical materials, archive, and evidence to show the veil’s representation in a realistic manner (Ullrich, 2014). Harun Farocki’s film attempted to answer the question of the reason behind veiling. Yamina Bachir-Chouikh’s Rachida (2002) is another Algerian film which discussed women’s situation during the Black Decade. According to Lina Khatib (2006), this film “uses women both to mirror the oppression of Islamic fundamentalism and to resist it” (p. 95). Rachida narrates the story of an unveiled school teacher struggle with terrorism. Flood (2016) stated that Bachir-Chouikh’s choice to a single, unveiled, and educated woman as a protagonist can be understood as a trial to challenge women’s Fanonian image as a monolithic entity primarily, during the 1990s.Thus, this argument matches Marnia Lazreg’s ideas.

Furthermore, Catherine Lloyd (2006) commented concerning Algerian women’s struggle during that time that “women who seemed to challenge accepted stereotypes became special targets: especially those who were public employees or who were unveiled. Women living on their own were particular targets […] Young, educated women were a particular target” (p.457).

The Veil in Papicha

Mounia Maddour’s Papicha (2019) is an Algerian film that narrates the story of Nedjma; a student of French language at the University of Algiers, during the 1990s. Papicha is an autobiography to the life of Maddour back in the 90s (Sippl, 2020). During the civil war, Maddour could not go to university, so she stayed home designing clothes; selling them at her neighbour’s shop (Sippl, 2020). The film was produced in Algeria, Belgium, France, and Qatar. The French César awards winner is considered one of the most controversial Algerian films and banned from display in Algeria (Bradshaw, 2020). The film summarizes the struggle of Nedjma and her roommates Kahina and Samira. Nedjma loves to enjoy her life; she is a fashion designer who sells dresses. Nedjma has full support from her sister, mother and friends, but the emergence of Islamic extremism led to the events’ development into a tragedy. The battle of Algiers Maddour showed how many Algerian women are diverse. Nedjma loved her country and did not want to migrate, while Kahina wanted to migrate to Canada.

Samira is a veiled conservative woman who is expected to stop school and get married through an arranged marriage by her family. After the death of the sister of Nedjma, she decided to manage a fashion show inspired by the Algerian tradition wearing El Haik. However, the show was interrupted violently by Islamist extremists. Like many Algerian women who survived the civil war, Nedjma faces reality and tries to live her life despite the danger. According to Diane Sippl (2020), Meddour takes the audience into the middle of the chaos, where women struggled from oppression. She portrays Algerian women’s problems and difficulties to achieve their goals and dreams (Sippl, 2020). Indeed, the film narrates a part of the Algerian women’s reality and struggle during the “Black Decade”.

Sheth Falguni’s (2006) question about the veil agency and its symbolic characteristics as an ‘unruly’ can be interpreted in Maddour’s Papicha. From a religious perspective, the veil can be read as an ‘unruly’ symbol through its representation as a threat and a challenge to Nedjma’s secular environment. Furthermore, Falguni (2009) stated that ‘unruly’ characters could be abstract such as a memory of a crime or a collective memory about something dangerous that happened in the past.

The abstract meaning of the ‘unruly’ can be juxtaposed in Nedjma’s witness to her journalist sister’s killing by a veiled woman. Along with Frantz Fanon’s (1959) analysis and Sheth Falguni (2009), the veil can serve as a symbol of modesty, resistance, or a potential threat. The veil is an expression to various agencies; it could be used as a challenge or a resistance rather than its religious connotation. Maddour’s Papicha used all the aforementioned symbols. The veil as a symbol of modesty can be interpreted when Nedjma inspired her fashion show from El Haik. El Haik itself has a double meaning in this context; it can also serve a symbol of resistance. In one of the scenes, Nedjma’s mother told Nedjma that El Haik used as a tool for hiding weapons during the revolution. Afterwards, her sister Linda was assassinated while wearing El-Haik.

Whereas the veil as a symbol of threat was depicted in fundamentalists’ imposition to wearing the veil or else, they will be killed. Khatib (2006) stated that non-fundamentalist East uses the same elements the West utilizes to portray the Eastern identity as a whole. Maddour’s Papicha represents fundamentalism as extremists and radicals, which are the West’s same characterizations usually used to portray Arabs and Muslims. Mounia Maddour like Marnia Lazreg and Frantz Fanon criticized those who legitimize the veil as standing for religion. In one of the scenes, Nedjma and Kahina used the veil as a weapon of camouflage. In a police checkpoint, they wore the veil not to be suspected, because they were on their way to a nightclub. This scene can also be interpreted as a mockery to the Western understanding of the veil. In Maddour’s film, Samira’s character can be applied to what Lazreg argued on veiling as a practice to be closer to God (Lazreg, 2009). Samira in the film was pregnant out of wedlock; she was having an affair with one of her colleagues at the university.

Conclusion 

To sum up, this paper focused on the representation of the veil in Mounia Maddour’s Papicha. The film introduced various meanings to the veil other than its religious connotation. The veil within the postcolonial context is complicated to be understood due to its dynamic use of agencies. Whether religious, a challenge, a symbol of resistance, or a threat. All that aforementioned was used in Maddour’s film. She introduced an even more complicated image towards the veil, unlike the Battle of Algiers. The film’s female characters were different, alluding to Marnia Lazreg’s arguments about the role of Algerian women’s individuality. Whether Maddour read about Fanon, Lazreg or Falguni, it is interesting how the film combined between these layers to conduct different meanings. Whether consciously or unconsciously, Papicha like other postcolonial cinema productions _related to the veil_ attempted to answer questions from feminist perspectives. However, despite the detailed images, the film confirms the Western understanding of the veil as a symbol of oppression.

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